Retrograde signaling between plastid and nucleus: A review.

Retrograde signaling, defined as the signaling events leading from the plastids to the nucleus, coordinates the expression of plastid and nuclear genes and is crucial for metabolic as well as developmental processes of the plastids. In the recent past, the identification of various components that are involved in the generation and transmission of plastid-originated retrograde signals and the regulation of nuclear gene expression has only provided a glimpse of the plastid retrograde signaling network, which remains poorly understood. The basic assumptions underlying our current understanding of retrograde signaling stayed untouched for many years. Therefore, an attempt has been made in this review article to summarize established facts and recent advances regarding various retrograde signaling pathways derived from different sources, the identification of key elements mediating retrograde signal transduction and also to give an overview of possible signaling molecules that remain to be investigated.