Clinical pathology of llamas.

Examination of the diseased llama often relies on clinical laboratory information to supplement that from the physical examination and history. Because of the llama's only recent importance as a companion animal, little information is available on the analysis and interpretation of clinical laboratory parameters in this species. Llamas possess red blood cells with a unique shape, small size, and high hemoglobin content. The hemoglobin has a high oxygen affinity, which helps the animal adapt to high altitudes and presents with an oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shifted to the left. The llama maintains high resting blood glucose, creatinine, and urea nitrogen levels. It is very efficient at recycling urea nitrogen via nonrenal pathways. Most of the clinical pathologic parameters can be utilized and interpreted as in other species, but with a different baseline of normal values.