Nitric Oxide Modulates Macrophage Responses to Infection through Activation of HIF-1α and Repression of NF-κB.

IFN-γ is essential for control of infection in vitro and in vivo. However, the mechanisms by which IFN-γ controls infection remain only partially understood. One of the crucial IFN-γ target genes required for control of is inducible NO synthase (iNOS). Although NO produced by iNOS is thought to have direct bactericidal activity against , the role of NO as a signaling molecule has been poorly characterized in the context infection. In this study, we found that iNOS broadly regulates the macrophage transcriptome during infection, activating antimicrobial pathways while also limiting inflammatory cytokine production. The transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) was recently shown to be critical for IFN-γ-mediated control of infection. We found that HIF-1α function requires NO production, and that HIF-1α and iNOS are linked by a positive feedback loop that amplifies macrophage activation. Furthermore, we found that NO inhibits NF-κB activity to prevent hyperinflammatory responses. Thus, NO activates robust microbicidal programs while also limiting damaging inflammation. IFN-γ signaling must carefully calibrate an effective immune response that does not cause excessive tissue damage, and this study identifies NO as a key player in establishing this balance during infection.