How can transcranial magnetic stimulation be used to causally manipulate memory representations in the human brain?

We present a focused review on the utility of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for modulating memory, with a particular focus on multimodal approaches in which TMS is paired with neuroimaging methods (electroencephalography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)) to manipulate and measure working memory processes. We contrast the utility of TMS for manipulating memory with other forms of noninvasive brain stimulation, as well as different forms of TMS including single-pulse, paired-pulse and repetitive TMS protocols. We discuss the potential for TMS to address fundamental cognitive neuroscience questions about the nature of memory processes and representations, while acknowledging the considerable variability of behavioral and neural outcomes in TMS studies. Also discussed are the limitations of this technology, current advancements that have helped to defray the impact of these limitations, and suggestions for future directions in research and methodology. This article is categorized under: Neuroscience > Clinical Neuroscience Neuroscience > Cognition Psychology > Memory.