Unobtrusive Photoplethysmographic Monitoring Under the Foot Sole while in a Standing Posture.

Photoplethysmography (PPG) of the foot sole could provide additional health-related information compared with traditional PPG of the finger or wrist. Previously, foot PPG required the procedural binding of a light-emitting diode (LED)-photodetector (PD) pair. We achieved PPG of the foot sole without binding any sensors to the foot while the participant stood in a natural standing position on the testing device. Foot PPG was performed using multiple LED-PD pairs to overcome motion artefacts caused by stabilization. We identified regions of the sole suitable for reliable sensor positioning with optimal LED-PD pairs on the basis of the estimated heart rate (HR) and signal quality index derived by dynamic time warping (wSQI). The first experiment included four participants with direct skin-to-sensor contact, and the results showed a mean HR estimation error of 0.01 beats/min and a wSQI of 0.909. The extended experiment with 53 participants, which involved including a gap between the skin and sensors to consider real-life applications, yielded a mean HR estimation error of 0.638 beats/min and a wSQI of 0.751. Based on the selection ratio of optimal LED-PD pairs, the best region of the sole for PPG was the midfoot, except the medial longitudinal arch. In conclusion, we confirmed that foot PPG using multiple LED-PD pairs is appropriate for HR evaluation and further applications.