Fuel remains in archaeological contexts: Experimental and archaeological evidence for recognizing remains in hearths used by Iron Age farmers who lived in peatlands.

In the archaeological record, ash and charred organic material are the only indications of the type of fuel used by ancient societies to feed their fires. This potential source of information may help further understanding of past human behaviour in relation to fuel selection, applied type of fire and function of fires lit in hearths. This study examined ash from reference samples and ash and char samples recovered from an Iron Age peatland site in Vlaardingen, the Netherlands. Local availability and abundance made it possible for the occupants of the site to choose from different fuel resources. Peat and cattle dung were readily available, while wood was less abundant. Reference samples from various locations were collected to investigate the properties of ash. Different types of wood, peat and cattle dung were accordingly ashed and analysed. In total, two techniques were used, that is, chemical analyses (x-ray fluorescence (XRF)) for the determination of the elemental composition and microscopic studies on field images of these ashes, mounted on glass slides, to investigate phytoliths quantitatively (Si and Ca types), siliceous aggregates and spherulites. The properties of the archaeological samples were compared with these results. The archaeological char samples were used for identification and analysed using reflective microscopy to study structure and temperature by reflectance (%Ro). It provided the necessary information to determine the type of fuel used by the Iron Age farmers and obtain more information on the function of the present fire structures. The results are strong indications that Iron Age farmers used all available fuels, that is, peat, cattle dung and wood, to feed their fires. The integrated application of phytolith, geochemical and char analyses has a high potential for the identification of the fuel selected by ancient societies.