Rapid evolution of piRNA-mediated silencing of an invading transposable element was driven by abundant de novo mutations.

The regulation of transposable element (TE) activity by small RNAs is a ubiquitous feature of germlines. However, despite the obvious benefits to the host in terms of ensuring the production of viable gametes and maintaining the integrity of the genomes they carry, it remains controversial whether TE regulation evolves adaptively. We examined the emergence and evolutionary dynamics of repressor alleles after -elements invaded the genome in the mid-twentieth century. In many animals including , repressor alleles are produced by transpositional insertions into piRNA clusters, genomic regions encoding the Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) that regulate TEs. We discovered that ∼94% of recently collected isofemale lines in the Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) contain at least one element insertion in a piRNA cluster, indicating that repressor alleles are produced by de novo insertion at an exceptional rate. Furthermore, in our sample of approximately 200 genomes, we uncovered no fewer than 80 unique element insertion alleles in at least 15 different piRNA clusters. Finally, we observe no footprint of positive selection on element insertions in piRNA clusters, suggesting that the rapid evolution of piRNA-mediated repression in was driven primarily by mutation. Our results reveal for the first time how the unique genetic architecture of piRNA production, in which numerous piRNA clusters can encode regulatory small RNAs upon transpositional insertion, facilitates the nonadaptive rapid evolution of repression.