Biological monitoring for ochratoxin A and citrinin and their metabolites in urine samples of infants and children in Bangladesh.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) are nephrotoxic mycotoxins, found in various foodstuffs and in animal feed, and may cause adverse effects on animal and human health. Previous biomonitoring data indicate a frequent co-exposure of Bangladeshi adults to these mycotoxins. However, since such data are not yet available for young children, a vulnerable part of the population, we conducted this study to assess their exposure to OTA and CIT and compare it with that of adults in Bangladesh. In total, 154 urine samples were collected from infants and children in Rajshahi (n = 88) and Dhaka (n = 66) district of Bangladesh. OTA, CIT, and their metabolites were analyzed by a sensitive HPLC-FLD or LC-MS/MS method, respectively. Overall, OTA and CIT biomarkers were detectable in 72.7% and 54.9% of urines, respectively. The mean OTA and OTα levels in urines were higher in children (0.13 ng/mL and 0.28 ng/mL, respectively) than in infants (0.08 ng/mL and 0.05 ng/mL, respectively). Regarding region, the mean level of OTA was higher in samples from Rajshahi district (0.13 ng/mL) than from Dhaka district (0.09 ng/mL), while the mean OTα level was 2-fold higher in the Dhaka. The total CIT biomarker concentration was significantly higher in children (2.16 ng/mL) than in infant (0.70 ng/mL) urines (p < 0.05), and the mean concentration of HO-CIT was about 6-fold higher than that of parent compound CIT. A provisional daily intake for CIT was calculated and exceeded a preliminary value set by EFSA (0.2 μg/kg bw) in 23.3% and 11.9% of children and infants, respectively. OTA and CIT biomarker concentrations in the young children cohorts are higher than those found in Bangladeshi adults in summer, but lower than in winter season. The new results indicate frequent co-exposure to nephrotoxic mycotoxins that varies between the cohorts and regions in Bangladesh.