Assessment of groundwater quality and associated health risk in the arid environment, Western Saudi Arabia.

Groundwater quality and associated health risk in the arid environment, Rabigh basin, Western Saudi Arabia, was assessed using an integrated approach namely groundwater suitability zone (GWSZ) maps, drinking water quality index (DWQI), irrigation water quality (IWQ) parameters, irrigation water quality index (IWQI), chronic daily index (CDI), and hazard quotient (HQ). Groundwater samples were collected (n = 50) and analysed. Groundwater is alkaline (80%), fresh to brackish, and hard to very hard, and 78% of samples exceeded the international drinking water safe limit. The DWQI indicates that groundwater samples are excellent (24%), good (24%), poor (20%), very poor (10%), and unsuitable (22%) classes for drinking use. Total HQ (HQ F + HQ NO) indicated that 68%, 80%, and 72% of samples express non-carcinogenic health threat to adult, children, and infant, respectively, in the study region. IWQ parameters, namely, EC, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly's ratio (KR), sodium percentage (Na%), permeability index (PI), and magnesium hazard (MH), suggest that 72%, 66%, 64%, 98%, and 92% of samples have SAR < 6, KR < 1, MH < 50, PI > 25%, and Na% < 60%, respectively, which are suitable for irrigation. USSL classification implies that groundwater is suitable only for salt-tolerant crops and high permeability soil. IWQI values suggest that groundwater in 12%, 82%, and 6% of wells are low, medium, and highly suitable, respectively, for irrigation. Furthermore, only 42% of samples are recommended for livestock uses due to high F (> 2). GWSZ maps, DWQI, and IWQI imply that groundwater in the upstream region is suitable whereas groundwater in the downstream is not recommended for any uses. Hence, this study recommended proper groundwater augmentation methods to reduce the salinity and improve the water quality in the shallow aquifer in the arid environment. The GWSZ, DWQI, and IWQI maps will aid to identify the suitable zones for groundwater development and sustainable management.