Immobilized thrombin on X-ray radiopaque polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan embolic microspheres for precise localization and topical blood coagulation.

-catheter arterial embolization (TAE) plays an important role in treating various diseases. The available embolic agents lack X-ray visibility and do not prevent the reflux phenomenon, thus hindering their application for TAE therapy. Herein, we aim to develop a multifunctional embolic agent that combines the X-ray radiopacity with local procoagulant activity. The barium sulfate nanoparticles (BaSO NPs) were synthesized and loaded into the polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan (PVA/CS) to prepare the radiopaque BaSO/PVA/CS microspheres (MS). Thereafter, thrombin was immobilized onto the BaSO/PVA/CS MS to obtain the thrombin@BaSO/PVA/CS MS. The prepared BaSO/PVA/CS MS were highly spherical with diameters ranging from 100 to 300 μm. CT imaging showed increased X-ray visibility of BaSO/PVA/CS MS with the increased content of BaSO NPs in the PVA/CS MS. The biocompatibility assessments demonstrated that the MS were non-cytotoxic and possessed permissible hemolysis rate. The biofunctionalized thrombin@BaSO/PVA/CS MS showed improved hemostatic capacity and facilitated hemostasis . Additionally, study performed on a rabbit ear embolization model confirmed the excellent X-ray radiopaque stability of the BaSO/PVA/CS MS. Moreover, both the BaSO/PVA/CS and thrombin@BaSO/PVA/CS MS achieved superior embolization effects with progressive ischemic necrosis on the ear tissue and induced prominent ultrastructural changes in the endothelial cells. The findings of this study suggest that the developed MS could act as a radiopaque and hemostatic embolic agent to improve the embolization efficiency.