Modulation of OMV Production by the Lysis Module of the DLP12 Defective Prophage of .

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are nanostructures mostly produced by blebbing of the outer membrane in Gram negative bacteria. They contain biologically active proteins and perform a variety of processes. OMV production is also a typical response to events inducing stress in the bacterial envelope. In these cases, hypervesiculation is regarded as a strategy to avoid the dangerous accumulation of undesired products within the periplasm. Several housekeeping genes influence the biogenesis of OMVs, including those correlated with peptidoglycan and cell wall dynamics. In this work, we have investigated the relationship between OMV production and the lysis module of the DLP12 cryptic prophage. This module is an operon encoding a holin, an endolysin and two spannins, and is known to be involved in cell wall maintenance. We find that deleting the lysis module increases OMV production, suggesting that during evolution this operon has been domesticated to regulate vesiculation, likely through the elimination of non-recyclable peptidoglycan fragments. We also show that the expression of the lysis module is negatively regulated by environmental stress stimuli as high osmolarity, low pH and low temperature. Our data further highlight how defective prophages finely contribute to bacterial host fitness.