Menadione sodium bisulfite alleviated chromium effects on wheat by regulating oxidative defense, chromium speciation, and ion homeostasis.

Menadione sodium bisulfite (MSB) is a crucial growth regulator mediating plant defense response. MSB-mediated regulation of defense mechanisms in wheat under chromium (Cr) toxicity has not been reported in the literature. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to appraise the efficacy of exogenous MSB on circumventing Cr phytotoxic effects on wheat. We also compared the effects of water-soluble MSB with that of water-insoluble menadiol diacetate (MD). The levels used in the present investigation for MSB and MD were 100 and 200 mg L. Wheat plants grown in soil contaminated with 25 mg kg Cr in the form of KCrO showed a notable reduction in growth, chlorophyll molecules, relative water contents, grain yield, total soluble sugars, phenolics, flavonoids, ascorbic acid, activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD, CAT), and uptake of essential nutrients (K, P, and Ca). Cr toxicity caused a noticeable accretion in total free amino acids, proline, malondialdehyde, HO, O, relative membrane permeability, methylglyoxal contents, activities of enzymes (lipoxygenase, glutathione-S-transferase, and ascorbate peroxidase), nitric oxide and HS contents, glutathione and oxidized glutathione contents, total Cr contents, and Cr and Cr accumulation. MSB application significantly reduced lipid peroxidation, ROS overproduction, methylglyoxal levels, total Cr contents, and maintained higher Cr:Cr ratio in aerial parts. Besides, Cr-mediated inhibition in essential nutrient uptake was significantly circumvented by exogenous MSB. Consequently, MSB enhanced wheat growth by lessening oxidative damage, total Cr contents in aerial parts, and strengthening antioxidant enzyme activities. MD was not effective in mediating defense responses in wheat under Cr toxicity.