Hypomethylating agents (HMA) for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes: mechanisms of resistance and novel HMA-based therapies.

Aberrant DNA methylation plays a pivotal role in tumor development and progression. DNA hypomethylating agents (HMA) constitute a class of drugs which are able to reverse DNA methylation, thereby triggering the re-programming of tumor cells. The first-generation HMA azacitidine and decitabine have now been in standard clinical use for some time, offering a valuable alternative to previous treatments in acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes, so far particularly in older, medically non-fit patients. However, the longer we use these drugs, the more we are confronted with the (almost inevitable) development of resistance. This review provides insights into the mode of action of HMA, mechanisms of resistance to this treatment, and strategies to overcome HMA resistance including next-generation HMA and HMA-based combination therapies.