California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care & Research Center, 151 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 United States.
University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 United States.
Harmful Algae. 2021 Mar;103:101981. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101981. Epub 2021 Apr 1.
As harmful algal blooms (HABs) increase in magnitude and duration worldwide, they are becoming an expanding threat to marine wildlife. Over the past decade, blooms of algae that produce the neurotoxins domoic acid (DA) and saxitoxin (STX) and documented concurrent seabird mortality events have increased bicoastally in the United States. We conducted a retrospective analysis of HAB related mortality events in California, Washington, and Rhode Island between 2007 and 2018 involving 12 species of seabirds, to document the levels, ranges, and patterns of DA and STX in eight sample types (kidney, liver, stomach, intestinal, cloacal, cecal contents, bile, blood) collected from birds during these events. Samples (n = 182) from 83 birds were examined for DA (n = 135) or STX (n = 17) or both toxins simultaneously (n = 30), using ELISA or LCMS at the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA-NMFS) Wildlife Algal-toxin Research and Response Network (WARRN-West) or the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC). DA or STX was detected in seven of the sample types with STX below the minimum detection limit in blood for the three samples tested. DA was found in 70% and STX was found in 23% of all tested samples. The ranges of detectable levels of DA and STX in all samples were 0.65-681,190.00 ng g and 2.00-20.95 ng g, respectively. Cloacal contents from a Pacific loon (Gavia pacifica) collected in 2017 from Ventura County, California, had the highest maximum level of DA for all samples and species tested in this study. The highest level of STX for all samples and species was detected in the bile of a northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) collected in 2018 from San Luis Obispo County, California. DA detections were consistently found in gastrointestinal samples, liver, bile, and kidney, whereas STX detections were most frequently seen in liver and bile samples. Co-occurring HAB toxins (DA and STX) were detected in white-winged scoters (Melanitta deglandi) in 2009, a Brandt's cormorant (Phalacrocorax penicillatus) in 2015, and a northern fulmar and common murre (Uria aalge) in 2018. This article provides DA and STX tissue concentrations and patterns in avian samples and shows the utility of various sample types for the detection of HAB toxins. Future research to understand the pharmacodynamics of these toxins in avian species and to establish lethal doses in various bird species would be beneficial.
随着有害藻华（HABs）在全球范围内的规模和持续时间的增加，它们对海洋野生动物的威胁也在不断扩大。在过去的十年中，美国沿海地区藻类大量繁殖，产生了神经毒素软骨藻酸（DA）和石房蛤毒素（STX），并记录了同期海鸟死亡事件增加。我们对 2007 年至 2018 年间加利福尼亚州、华盛顿州和罗得岛州发生的与 HAB 相关的死亡事件进行了回顾性分析，涉及 12 种海鸟，记录了在这些事件中从鸟类收集的八种样本类型（肾脏、肝脏、胃、肠道、泄殖腔、盲肠内容物、胆汁、血液）中 DA 和 STX 的水平、范围和模式。使用酶联免疫吸附测定法或液质联用技术，在美国国家海洋和大气管理局、国家海洋渔业局（NOAA-NMFS）野生动物藻毒素研究和应对网络（WARRN-West）或加利福尼亚大学圣克鲁斯分校（UCSC）对 83 只鸟类的 182 个样本（n=135）进行了 DA 或 STX 或同时检测两种毒素（n=30）。在三种测试的血液样本中，STX 的最低检测限低于血液中的 STX。在所有测试的样本中，DA 被发现的比例为 70%，STX 被发现的比例为 23%。所有样本中 DA 和 STX 的检测水平范围分别为 0.65-681,190.00ng g 和 2.00-20.95ng g。2017 年在加利福尼亚州文图拉县采集的一只太平洋海雀（Gavia pacifica）的泄殖腔内容物是本研究中所有测试样本和物种中 DA 含量最高的样本。在 2018 年加利福尼亚州圣路易斯奥比斯波县采集的一只北方管鼻藿（Fulmarus glacialis）的胆汁中，STX 的含量是所有样本和物种中最高的。DA 检测结果一致出现在胃肠道样本、肝脏、胆汁和肾脏中，而 STX 检测结果最常出现在肝脏和胆汁样本中。在 2009 年的白翅鸭（Melanitta deglandi）、2015 年的白头海雕（Phalacrocorax penicillatus）和 2018 年的北方管鼻藿和普通海鸠（Uria aalge）中都检测到了同时存在的 HAB 毒素（DA 和 STX）。本文提供了鸟类样本中 DA 和 STX 的组织浓度和模式，并展示了各种样本类型在检测 HAB 毒素方面的应用。未来的研究将有助于了解这些毒素在鸟类中的药效动力学，并确定各种鸟类物种的致死剂量。
