Cynaroside prevents macrophage polarization into pro-inflammatory phenotype and alleviates cecal ligation and puncture-induced liver injury by targeting PKM2/HIF-1α axis.

The treatment of sepsis is still challenging and the liver is an important target of sepsis-related injury. Macrophages are important innate immune cells in liver, and modulation of macrophages M1/M2 polarization may be a promising strategy for septic liver injury treatment. Macrophage polarization and inflammation of liver tissue has been shown regulated by pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2)-mediated aerobic glycolysis and immune inflammatory pathways. Therefore, modulating PKM2-mediated immunometabolic reprogramming presents a novel strategy for inflammation-associated diseases. In this study, cynaroside, a flavonoid compound, promoted macrophage phenotypic transition from pro-inflammatory M1 to anti-inflammatory M2, and mitigated sepsis-associated liver inflammatory damage. We established that cynaroside reduced binding of PKM2 to hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) by abolishing translocation of PKM2 to the nucleus and promoting PKM2 tetramer formation, as well as suppressing phosphorylation of PKM2 at Y105 in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, cynaroside restored pyruvate kinase activity, inhibited glycolysis-related proteins including PFKFB3, HK2 and HIF-1α, and inhibited glycolysis-related hyperacetylation of HMGB1 in septic liver. Therefore, this study reports a novel function of cynaroside in hepatic macrophage polarization, and cecum ligation and puncture-induced liver injury in septic mice. The findings provide crucial information with regard to therapeutic efficacy of cynaroside in the treatment of sepsis.