School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, King Edward Avenue, Pietermaritzburg, 3209, South Africa; School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South St., Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia.
Traditional Medicinals, 4515 Ross Road, Sebastopol, CA, 95472, USA.
J Ethnopharmacol. 2021 Oct 5;278:114202. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114202. Epub 2021 May 13.
Griffonia simplicifolia D.C (Baill.) (Fabaceae) seeds are unusually high (6-20% wet weight) in 5-HTP (5-Hydroxytryptophan), a serotonin precursor widely used to treat depression. Consequently, this species is regarded as a herbal "Prozac®". Contemporary use as an anti-depressant contrasts with traditional uses for insecticides, arachnicides, fodder, dyes, mordants and chewing-sticks. G. simplicifolia seeds are wild-harvested for the export trade. Over the past 15 years, use of 5-HTP extracted from G. simplicifolia in cosmetics has added to global demand. Wild populations in West Africa are the sole commercial source of G. simplicifolia seed.
Were to (i) assess the scale of the global trade in G. simplicifolia seeds and (ii) produce a synthesis of the challenges facing sustainable harvest of G. simplicifolia.
Firstly, we analysed global trade data for G. simplicifolia, taking into account historical trends over the past 40 years. Secondly, we reviewed published studies on the distribution, population biology and harvest impacts of wild G. simplicifolia populations.
s: Wild G. simplicifolia populations have been the focus of commercial harvest of their pods (for seeds) for international trade from West Africa for almost 50 years. In the late 1980's, when Ghana exported 75-80 metric tonnes (MT) of G. simplicifolia seed to Europe, this species was already Ghana's main medicinal plant export. Currently, 5 West African countries export G. simplicifolia seeds (Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria and Togo). Although in the 1980's, most seed exports were to Europe, today China is the main importer of G. simplicifolia seed. These seeds are value-added for production of 5-HTP extracts, and then re-exported, particularly to North America (c.48% of exports). The low habitat specificity and vigorous re-sprouting of G. simplicifolia after cutting, plus its occurrence in forest reserves and national parks confer some resilience on wild populations. Sustaining future supply chains faces six future challenges, however: (1) Rapid loss of forest habitats; (2) Declining populations of understorey birds and disruption of G. simplicifolia pollination in this bird pollinated species; (3) Negative effects of introduced invasive plant species (Broussonetia papyrifera, Chromolaena odorata) on G. simplicifolia regeneration; (4) Grazing by livestock and use of G. simplicifolia leaves as forage; (5) The long-term impact of industrial scale seed "predation": Over a 9-year period (2005-2013), G. simplicifolia exports from Ghana totalled at least 5550 metric tonnes (or between 9.1 billion to 13.5 billion seeds). This could affect the long-term population dynamics of this species, which produces a low number of seeds per pod (1-4 seeds) and has short distance (ballistic) seed dispersal; and (6) Destructive harvest methods, when plants are cut to harvest get the seed pods. Improved resource management, monitoring, quality control and careful pricing are important if supply chains from wild stocks are to be maintained. If wild populations decline, then 5-HTP biosynthesis may compete with low G. simplicifolia seed yields, leading to loss of income to West African harvesters and traders.
Griffonia simplicifolia D.C（Baill.）（豆科）的种子中含有异常高的 5-HTP（5-羟色氨酸），5-HTP 是一种广泛用于治疗抑郁症的血清素前体。因此，这种物种被认为是一种草药“百忧解”。当代将其用作抗抑郁药与传统上用作杀虫剂、蛛形纲动物杀虫剂、饲料、染料、媒染剂和咀嚼棒的用途形成鲜明对比。G. simplicifolia 种子是为出口贸易而野生收获的。在过去的 15 年中，从 G. simplicifolia 中提取的 5-HTP 在化妆品中的使用增加了全球需求。西非的野生种群是 G. simplicifolia 种子唯一的商业来源。
（i）评估 G. simplicifolia 种子的全球贸易规模，（ii）综合可持续收获 G. simplicifolia 所面临的挑战。
首先，我们分析了 G. simplicifolia 的全球贸易数据，考虑了过去 40 年的历史趋势。其次，我们回顾了关于野生 G. simplicifolia 种群的分布、种群生物学和收获影响的已发表研究。
西非野生 G. simplicifolia 种群一直是国际商业收获其豆荚（用于种子）的重点，已有近 50 年的历史。在 20 世纪 80 年代后期，当加纳向欧洲出口 75-80 公吨（MT）的 G. simplicifolia 种子时，这种植物已经是加纳主要的药用植物出口。目前，有 5 个西非国家出口 G. simplicifolia 种子（科特迪瓦、加纳、利比里亚、尼日利亚和多哥）。尽管在 20 世纪 80 年代，大多数种子出口到欧洲，但今天中国是 G. simplicifolia 种子的主要进口国。这些种子经过增值加工成 5-HTP 提取物，然后再出口，特别是出口到北美（约占出口量的 48%）。G. simplicifolia 切割后栖息地特异性低且能迅速重新萌芽，加上其在森林保护区和国家公园中的存在，使野生种群具有一定的恢复能力。然而，维持未来的供应链面临着六个未来的挑战：（1）森林栖息地的迅速丧失；（2）林下鸟类数量减少以及这种鸟类授粉的 G. simplicifolia 授粉中断；（3）外来入侵植物种（Broussonetia papyrifera、Chromolaena odorata）对 G. simplicifolia 再生的负面影响；（4）牲畜放牧和将 G. simplicifolia 叶子用作饲料；（5）工业规模种子“捕食”的长期影响：在 9 年期间（2005-2013 年），加纳出口的 G. simplicifolia 总量至少为 5550 公吨（或 91 亿至 135 亿粒种子）。这可能会影响该物种的长期种群动态，该物种每荚产生的种子数量较少（1-4 粒），并且种子传播距离较短（弹道）；（6）破坏性的收获方法，当植物被切割以收获豆荚时。如果要维持野生种群的供应链，就需要改进资源管理、监测、质量控制和谨慎定价。如果野生种群减少，那么 5-HTP 生物合成可能会与低 G. simplicifolia 种子产量竞争，导致西非采集者和贸易商收入损失。
