Over-the-Counter Sale of Antibiotics in India: A Qualitative Study of Providers' Perspectives across Two States.

India has one of the highest rates of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) worldwide. Despite being prescription drugs, antibiotics are commonly available over-the-counter (OTC) at retail pharmacies. We aimed to gain insight into the OTC sale of antibiotics at retail pharmacies and to elucidate its underlying drivers. We conducted face-to-face, in-depth interviews using convenience sampling with 22 pharmacists and 14 informal dispensers from 36 retail pharmacies across two Indian states (Haryana and Telangana). Thematic analysis revealed that antibiotics were often dispensed OTC for conditions e.g., fever, cough and cold, and acute diarrhea, which are typically viral and self-limiting. Both Access and Watch groups of antibiotics were dispensed for 1-2 days. Respondents had poor knowledge regarding AMR and shifted the blame for OTC practices for antibiotics onto the government, prescribers, informal providers, cross practice by alternative medicine practitioners, and consumer demand. Pharmacists suggested the main drivers for underlying OTC dispensing were commercial interests, poor access to public healthcare, economic and time constraints among consumers, lack of stringent regulations, and scanty inspections. Therefore, a comprehensive strategy which is well aligned with activities under the National Action Plan-AMR, including stewardship efforts targeting pharmacists and evidence-based targeted awareness campaigns for all stakeholders, is required to curb the inappropriate use of antibiotics.