Delayed parenthood and its influence on offspring health: what have we learned from the mouse model†.

Delayed parenthood is constantly increasing worldwide due to various socio-economic factors. In the last decade, a growing number of epidemiological studies have suggested a link between advanced parental age and an increased risk of diseases in the offspring. Also, poor reproductive outcome has been described in pregnancies conceived by aged parents. Similarly, animal studies showed that aging negatively affects gametes, early embryonic development, pregnancy progression, and the postnatal phenotype of resulting offspring. However, how and to what extent parental age is a risk factor for the health of future generations is still a subject of debate. Notwithstanding the limitation of an animal model, the mouse model represents a useful tool to understand not only the influence of parental age on offspring phenotype but also the biological mechanisms underlying the poor reproductive outcome and the occurrence of diseases in the descendants. The present review aims at i) providing an overview of the current knowledge from mouse model about the risks associated with conception at advanced age (e.g. neurodevelopmental and metabolic disorders), ii) highlighting the candidate biological mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, and iii) discussing on how murine-derived data can be relevant to humans.