The roles and therapeutic applications of cytokines in endometrial cancer.

Endometrial cancer (EC) is a common gynecological cancer globally and the most frequent gynecologic malignancy in industrialized countries. Patients are typically diagnosed when the disease is still restricted to the uterus. 5-year overall survival ranges from 70 % to 90 % in patients without metastatic disease; however, the metastatic form of the disease affects 16 % of EC patients, with a 5-year survival rate of 16.8 %. The immune system can detect abnormal cells as non-self in the early stages of carcinogenesis, producing the appropriate pro-inflammatory environment to eliminate cancer cells. In a second phase, cancer cells use various immune-editing systems to alter the profile of the immune response from pro to anti-inflammatory, resulting in immune escape. The directors of this immune switching mechanism are cytokines. Studies have reported the increased expression of several pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in EC tissues and cell lines, including Interleukin (IL)- 6, IL-8, IL-31, IL-33, IL-10, TGF-β, VEGF, and IL-1Ra. Immune cells producing these cytokines have also been reported to be present in EC tissues. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to show the possible mechanisms of the mentioned cytokines on EC progression, as well as the most current and prospective advancements in cytokine-based therapeutic applications.