Ingestion of titanium dioxide nanoparticles: a definite health risk for consumers and their progeny.

Titanium dioxide (TiO) is one of the most commonly used nanomaterials in the world. Additive E171, which is used in the food industry, contains a nanometric particle fraction of TiO. Oral exposure of humans to these nanoparticles (NPs) is intensive, leading to the question of their impact on health. Daily oral intake by rats of amounts of E171 that are relevant to human intake has been associated with an increased risk of chronic intestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis. Due to their food preferences, children are very exposed to this NP. Furthermore, maternal-foetal transfer of TiO NPs during pregnancy, as well as exposure of the offspring by breastfeeding, have been recently described. In France, the use of E171 in the production of foodstuffs was suspended in January 2020 as a precautionary measure. To provide some answers to this public health problem and help global regulatory agencies finalize their decisions, we reviewed in vitro and in vivo studies that address the effects of TiO NPs through oral exposure, especially their effects on the gastrointestinal tract, one of the most exposed tissues. Our review also highlights the effects of exposure on the offspring during pregnancy and by breastfeeding.