Colour vision in nocturnal insects.

The ability to see colour at night is known only from a handful of animals. First discovered in the elephant hawk moth , nocturnal colour vision is now known from two other species of hawk moths, a single species of carpenter bee, a nocturnal gecko and two species of anurans. The reason for this rarity-particularly in vertebrates-is the immense challenge of achieving a sufficient visual signal-to-noise ratio to support colour discrimination in dim light. Although no less challenging for nocturnal insects, unique optical and neural adaptations permit reliable colour vision and colour constancy even in starlight. Using the well-studied , we describe the visual light environment at night, the visual challenges that this environment imposes and the adaptations that have evolved to overcome them. We also explain the advantages of colour vision for nocturnal insects and its usefulness in discriminating night-opening flowers. Colour vision is probably widespread in nocturnal insects, particularly pollinators, where it is likely crucial for nocturnal pollination. This relatively poorly understood but vital ecosystem service is threatened from increasingly abundant and spectrally abnormal sources of anthropogenic light pollution, which can disrupt colour vision and thus the discrimination and pollination of flowers. This article is part of the theme issue 'Understanding colour vision: molecular, physiological, neuronal and behavioural studies in arthropods'.