Interpretation and Use of Applied/Operational Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence in Surgery.

Applications for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning in surgery include image interpretation, data summarization, automated narrative construction, trajectory and risk prediction, and operative navigation and robotics. The pace of development has been exponential, and some AI applications are working well. However, demonstrations of clinical utility, validity, and equity have lagged algorithm development and limited widespread adoption of AI into clinical practice. Outdated computing infrastructure and regulatory challenges which promote data silos are key barriers. Multidisciplinary teams will be needed to address these challenges and to build AI systems that are relevant, equitable, and dynamic.