Conventional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines: Mechanistic Insights into Therapeutic Landscape of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.

COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) is a major public health concern associated with significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Current therapeutic guidelines for this disease recommend starting with an inhaled bronchodilator, stepping up to combination therapy as necessary, and/or adding inhaled corticosteroids as symptoms and airflow obstruction progress. However, no drug therapy exists to stop disease progression. The mechanistic definition underlying COPD pathogenesis remains poorly understood, it is generally accepted that oxidative stress and the altered immune response of low-grade airway inflammation are major factors contributing to COPD development. There are several potential therapeutic targets that are currently under investigation, including immune regulatory pathways in inflammation and lung-associated steroid resistance induced by oxidative stress signaling cascades. Patients with COPD have increased levels of inflammatory mediators, including lipid and peptide mediators, as well as a network of cytokines and chemokines that maintain inflammatory immune response and recruit circulating cells into the lungs. Many of these pro-inflammatory mediators are regulated by nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), such as p38 MAPK. Increased oxidative stress is a key driving mechanism in perpetuating inflammation and lung injury. Furthermore, many proteases that degrade elastin fibres are secreted by airway resident infiltrating immune cells in COPD patients. In this perspective, we discuss novel aspects of signaling pathway activation in the context of inflammation and oxidative stress, and the broad view of potential effective pharmacotherapies that target the underlying mechanistic disease process in COPD.