The use of chitosan-based composites for environmental remediation: A review.

The presence of hazardous pollutants in water sources as a result of industrial activities is a major environmental challenge that impedes the availability of safe drinking water. Adsorptive and photocatalytic degradative removal of various pollutants in wastewater have been recognized as cost-effective and energy-efficient strategies. In addition to its biological activity, chitosan and its derivatives are considered as promising materials for the removal of various pollutants. The abundance of hydroxyl and amino groups in the chitosan macromolecular structure results in a variety of concurrent pollutant's adsorption mechanisms. Furthermore, adding chitosan to photocatalysts increases the mass transfer while decreasing both the band gap energy and the amount of intermediates produced during photocatalytic processes, improving the overall photocatalytic efficiency. Herein, we have reviewed the current design and preparation of chitosan and its composites, as well as their applications for the removal of various pollutants by adsorption and photocatalysis processes. Effects of operating variables such as the pH, catalyst mass, contact time, light wavelength, initial pollutant's concentration, and catalyst recyclability, are discussed. Various kinetic and isotherm models are presented to elucidate the rates, and mechanisms of pollutant's removal, onto chitosan-based composites, and several case studies are presented. Additionally, the antibacterial activity of chitosan-based composites has been discussed. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the applications of chitosan-based composites in wastewater treatment and put forward new insights for the development of highly effective chitosan-based adsorbents and photocatalysts. Finally, the main challenges and future directions in the field are discussed.