Gastrointestinal Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease: Neuro-Gastroenterology Perspectives on a Multifaceted Problem.

Patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) face a multitude of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, including nausea, bloating, reduced bowel movements, and difficulties with defecation. These symptoms are common and may accumulate during the course of PD but are often under-recognized and challenging to manage. Objective testing can be burdensome to patients and does not correlate well with symptoms. Effective treatment options are limited. Evidence is often based on studies in the general population, and specific evidence in PD is scarce. Upper GI dysfunction may also interfere with the pharmacological treatment of PD motor symptoms, which poses significant management challenges. Several new less invasive assessment tools and novel treatment options have emerged in recent years. The current review provides an overview and a practical approach to recognizing and diagnosing common upper and lower GI problems in PD, e.g., dyspepsia, gastroparesis, small bowel dysfunction, chronic constipation, and defecatory dysfunction. Management aspects are discussed based on the latest evidence from the PD and general populations, with insights for future research pertaining to GI dysfunction in PD.