Antimicrobial resistance in southeast Asian water environments: A systematic review of current evidence and future research directions.

Antimicrobial resistance has been a serious and complex issue for over a decade. Although research on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has mainly focused on clinical and animal samples as essential for treatment, the AMR situation in aquatic environments may vary and have complicated patterns according to geographical area. Therefore, this study aimed to examine recent literature on the current situation and identify gaps in the AMR research on freshwater, seawater, and wastewater in Southeast Asia. The PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect databases were searched for relevant publications published from January 2013 to June 2023 that focused on antimicrobial resistance bacteria (ARB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) among water sources. Based on the inclusion criteria, the final screening included 41 studies, with acceptable agreement assessed using Cohen's inter-examiner kappa equal to 0.866. This review found that 23 out of 41 included studies investigated ARGs and ARB reservoirs in freshwater rather than in seawater and wastewater, and it frequently found that Escherichia coli was a predominant indicator in AMR detection conducted by both phenotypic and genotypic methods. Different ARGs, such as bla, sul1, and tetA genes, were found to be at a high prevalence in wastewater, freshwater, and seawater. Existing evidence highlights the importance of wastewater management and constant water monitoring in preventing AMR dissemination and strengthening effective mitigation strategies. This review may be beneficial for updating current evidence and providing a framework for spreading ARB and ARGs, particularly region-specific water sources. Future AMR research should include samples from various water systems, such as drinking water or seawater, to generate contextually appropriate results. Robust evidence regarding standard detection methods is required for prospective-era work to raise practical policies and alerts for developing microbial source tracking and identifying sources of contamination-specific indicators in aquatic environment markers.