Genomic insights into the genetic basis of eagle-beak jaw, large head, and long tail in the big-headed turtle.

The big-headed turtle () is an endemic chelonian species in Asia. Unlike most other turtles in the world, is characterized with eagle-beak jaw, large head, and long tail. Although these unique characteristics are well recognized, the underlying genetic basis remains largely elusive. Here, we performed comparative genomic analysis between and other representative species, aiming to reveal the genetic basis of the unique morphological features. Our results revealed that the eagle-beak jaw is most likely enabled by combined effects of expansion of SFRP5, extraction of FGF11, and mutation of both ZFYVE16 and PAX6. Large head is supported by mutations of SETD2 and FGRF2 and copy number variations of six head circumference modulation-related genes (TGFBR2, Twist2, Rdh10, Gas1, Chst11, and SNAP25). The long tail is probably involved in a genetic network comprising Gdf11, Lin 28, and HoxC12, two of which showed a consistent expression pattern with a model organism (mice). These findings suggest that expansion, extraction, and mutation of those genes may have profound effects on unique phenotypes of .