Diagnostic techniques for critical respiratory infections: Update on current methods.

Respiratory infections, whether chronic or acute, are frequent in both children and adults and result in an economic burden in health care systems. In particular, for an immunocompromised patient, respiratory infection leads to acute hypoxemic respiratory failure, a leading cause of intensive care unit (ICU) admission. Most respiratory infections are caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, smoking, or air pollution. Over the last two decades, considerable improvements have been made in understanding and identifying respiratory infections. Various biosensing techniques have been developed with a range of targets to identify the infection at earlier stages. Recently, nanomaterials have been effectively applied to improve biosensors and their analytical performances. This review discusses recent biosensor developments for identifying respiratory infections caused by viruses and bacteria assisted by different types of nanomaterials and target molecules.