Two distinct non-ribosomal peptide synthetase-independent siderophore synthetase gene clusters identified in Armillaria and other species in the Physalacriaceae.

Siderophores are important for ferric iron solubilization, sequestration, transportation, and storage, especially under iron-limiting conditions such as aerobic conditions at high pH. Siderophores are mainly produced by non-ribosomal peptide synthetase-dependent siderophore pathway, non-ribosomal peptide synthetase-independent siderophore synthetase pathway, or the hybrid non-ribosomal peptide synthetases/non-ribosomal peptide synthetases-independent siderophore pathway. Outcompeting or inhibition of plant pathogens, alteration of host defense mechanisms, and alteration of plant-fungal interactions have been associated with fungal siderophores. To understand these mechanisms in fungi, studies have been conducted on siderophore biosynthesis by ascomycetes with limited focus on the basidiomycetes. Armillaria includes several species that are pathogens of woody plants and trees important to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of non-ribosomal peptide synthetases-independent siderophore synthetase gene cluster(s) in genomes of Armillaria species using a comparative genomics approach. Iron-dependent growth and siderophore biosynthesis in strains of selected Armillaria spp. were also evaluated in vitro. Two distinct non-ribosomal peptide synthetases-independent siderophore synthetase gene clusters were identified in all the genomes. All non-ribosomal peptide synthetases-independent siderophore synthetase genes identified putatively encode Type A' non-ribosomal peptide synthetases-independent siderophore synthetases, most of which have IucA_IucC and FhuF-like transporter domains at their N- and C-terminals, respectively. The effect of iron on culture growth varied among the strains studied. Bioassays using the CAS assay on selected Armillaria spp. revealed in vitro siderophore biosynthesis by all strains irrespective of added FeCl3 concentration. This study highlights some of the tools that Armillaria species allocate to iron homeostasis. The information generated from this study may in future aid in developing molecular based methods to control these phytopathogens.