An end-to-end LSTM-Attention based framework for quasi-steady-state CEST prediction.

Chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST)-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) often takes prolonged saturation duration (Ts) and relaxation delay (Td) to reach the steady state, and yet the insufficiently long Ts and Td in actual experiments may underestimate the CEST measurement. In this study, we aimed to develop a deep learning-based model for quasi-steady-state (QUASS) prediction from non-steady-state CEST acquired in experiments, therefore overcoming the limitation of the CEST effect which needs prolonged saturation time to reach a steady state. To support network training, a multi-pool Bloch-McConnell equation was designed to derive wide-ranging simulated Z-spectra, so as to solve the problem of time and labor consumption in manual annotation work. Following this, we formulated a hybrid architecture of long short-term memory (LSTM)-Attention to improve the predictive ability. The multilayer perceptron, recurrent neural network, LSTM, gated recurrent unit, BiLSTM, and LSTM-Attention were included in comparative experiments of QUASS CEST prediction, and the best performance was obtained by the proposed LSTM-Attention model. In terms of the linear regression analysis, structural similarity index (SSIM), peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), and mean-square error (MSE), the results of LSTM-Attention demonstrate that the coefficient of determination in the linear regression analysis was at least  = 0.9748 for six different representative frequency offsets, the mean values of prediction accuracies in terms of SSIM, PSNR and MSE were 0.9991, 49.6714, and 1.68 × 10 for all frequency offsets. It was concluded that the LSTM-Attention model enabled high-quality QUASS CEST prediction.