Extracellular vesicle production: A bidirectional effect in the interplay between host and fungi.

fungi exploit various virulence strategies to invade the human host, while host cells employ diverse mechanisms to maintain homeostasis and respond to infection. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are integral components of the multifaceted landscape of host-pathogen interactions, with their abundant production by all contributors involved in these complex and dynamic relations. Herein, we present the current state of knowledge regarding the host response by releasing EVs in reaction to , as well as the influence of fungal EVs on the functionality of the confronted host cells. Fungal vesicles contribute to enhanced adhesion of pathogens to human cells as evidenced for , and may modulate the production of several cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p40, TGF-β and TNF-α, thereby exerting pro-infective and pro-inflammatory effects, as described for and other species. Whereas the biosynthesis of EVs by host cells can dynamically modulate the proliferation and viability of fungal cells and affect the candidacidal functionality of other effector cells. The reciprocal influence of EVs from host cells and pathogens is a key focus, explaining their significant role in cell signaling and interkingdom communication.