Alfalfa Spring Black Stem and Leaf Spot Disease Caused by : Epidemic Occurrence and Impacts.

Alfalfa spring black stem and leaf spot disease (ASBS) is a cosmopolitan soil-borne and seed-borne disease caused by , which adversely affects the yield, and nutritive value and can stimulate production of phyto-oestrogenic compounds at levels that may adversely affect ovulation rates in animals. This review summarizes the host range, damage, and symptoms of this disease, and general features of the infection cycle, epidemic occurrence, and disease management. ASBS has been reported from over 40 countries, and often causes severe yield loss. Under greenhouse conditions, reported yield loss was 31-82% for roots, 32-80% for leaves, 21% for stems and 26-28% for seedlings. In field conditions, the forage yield loss is up to 56%, indicating that a single-cut yield of 5302 kg/ha would be reduced to 2347 kg/ha. can infect up to 50 species of plants, including the genera , , , and . ASBS is more severe during warm spring conditions before the first harvest than in hot summer and cooler winter conditions, and can infect alfalfa roots, stems, leaves, flowers, pods, and seeds, with leaf spot and/or black stem being the most typical symptoms. The primary infection is caused by the overwintering spores and mycelia in the soil, and on seeds and the cortex of dead and dry stems. The use of resistant cultivars is the most economical and effective strategy for the control of ASBS. Although biological control has been studied in the glasshouse and is promising, chemical control is the main control method in agriculture.