PM10-bound microplastics and trace metals: A public health insight from the Korean subway and indoor environments.

Inhalable airborne microplastics (MPs) presented in indoor and outdoor environments, can deeply penetrate the lungs, potentially triggering inflammation and respiratory illnesses. The present study aims to evaluate human health risks from respirable particulate matter (PM)-bound trace metals and MPs in indoor (SW- subway and IRH- indoor residential houses) and outdoor (OD) environments. This research provides an initial approach to human respiratory tract (HRT) mass depositions of PM10-bound total MPs and nine specific MP types to predict potential human health threats from inhalation exposure. Results indicate that PM-bound trace metals and MPs were around 4 times higher in SW microenvironments compared to OD locations. In IRH, cancer risk (CR) levels were estimated 9 and 4 times higher for PM10 and PM2.5, respectively. Additionally, MP particle depositions per gram of lung cell weight were highest in IRH (23.77), followed by OD and SW. Whereas, lifetime alveoli depositions of MPs were estimated at 13.73 MP/g, which exceeds previously reported respiratory disease fatality cases by 10 to 5 times. Prolonged exposure duration at IRH emerged as a key factor contributing to increased CR and MP lung deposition levels. This research highlights severe lung risks from inhaling PM-bound MPs and metals, offering valuable health insights.