Unveiling the Contamination Patterns of Neonicotinoid Insecticides: Detection, Distribution, and Risk Assessment in across Plant Parts.

This study analyzed neonicotinoid insecticides (NEOs) and metabolite (m-NEOs) residues in 136 samples via ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Imidacloprid was the most detected NEO (88.24% of samples), ranging from 1.50 to 2850 μg/kg. To the best of our knowledge, some novel NEOs were detected in for the first time. NEO clustering patterns varied among plant parts, with higher contamination in leaves and flowers. Fourteen NEO/m-NEOs, including cycloxaprid and acetamiprid, showed site-specific behavior, indicating the possibility of using multiple NEOs simultaneously during planting, resulting in formation of distinct metabolites in different plant parts. Transfer rates in decoction and infusion ranged from 10.06 to 32.33%, reducing residues postprocessing. Dietary risk assessment showed low hazard quotients (HQ: 7.05 × 10 to 2.09 × 10; HQ: 3.74 × 10 to 2.38 × 10), but risk-ranking scores indicated potential hazards with imidacloprid and acetamiprid in flowers and leaves. The findings are expected to promote safety assessment and distribution research of NEOs in plants.