Consolidating multiple evolutionary theories of ageing suggests a need for new approaches to study genetic contributions to ageing decline.

Understanding mechanisms of ageing remains a complex challenge for biogerontologists, but recent adaptations of evolutionary ageing theories offer a compelling lens in which to view both age-related molecular and physiological deterioration. Ageing is commonly associated with progressive declines in biochemical and molecular processes resulting from damage accumulation, yet the role of continued developmental gene activation is less appreciated. Natural selection pressures are at their highest in youthful periods to modify gene expression towards maximising reproductive capacity. After sexual maturation, selective pressure diminishes, subjecting individuals to maladaptive pleiotropic gene functions that were once beneficial for developmental growth but become pathogenic later in life. Due to this selective 'shadowing' in ageing, mechanisms to counter such hyper/hypofunctional genes are unlikely to evolve. Interventions aimed at targeting gene hyper/hypofunction during ageing might, therefore, represent an attractive therapeutic strategy. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans offers a strong model for post-reproductive mechanistic and therapeutic investigations, yet studies examining the mechanisms of, and countermeasures against, ageing decline largely intervene from larval stages onwards. Importantly, however, lifespan extending conditions frequently impair early-life fitness and fail to correspondingly increase healthspan. Here, we consolidate multiple evolutionary theories of ageing and discuss data supporting hyper/hypofunctional changes at a global molecular and functional level in C. elegans, and how classical lifespan-extension mutations alter these dynamics. The relevance of such mutant models for exploring mechanisms of ageing are discussed, highlighting that post-reproductive gene optimisation represents a more translatable approach for C. elegans research that is not constrained by evolutionary trade-offs. Where some genetic mutations in C. elegans that promote late-life health map accordingly with healthy ageing in humans, other widely used genetic mutations that extend worm lifespan are associated with life-limiting pathologies in people. Lifespan has also become the gold standard for quantifying 'ageing', but we argue that gerospan compression (i.e., 'healthier' ageing) is an appropriate goal for anti-ageing research, the mechanisms of which appear distinct from those regulating lifespan alone. There is, therefore, an evident need to re-evaluate experimental approaches to study the role of hyper/hypofunctional genes in ageing in C. elegans.