A genomic journey across the past, present, and future of South American maize.

Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) diverged from one of its wild relatives, the teosinte Zea mays ssp. parviglumis, in the lowlands of southwest Mexico ~9000 years ago. Following this divergence, maize rapidly expanded throughout the Americas becoming a staple food. This dispersal was accompanied by significant demographic and selective changes, leading to the development of numerous local varieties with a complex evolutionary history that remains incompletely understood. In recent years, genomic advances have challenged traditional models of maize domestication and spread to South America. At least three distinct genetic lineages associated with different migratory waves have been described: ancestral Andean, ancestral Lowland, and Pan-American. Additionally, the significant role of the teosinte Zea mays ssp. mexicana in the evolution of modern maize has been recently uncovered. Genomic studies have shed light on highland adaptation processes, revealing largely independent adaptation events in Meso and South America. As new evidence emerges, the regional complexity underlying maize diversity and the need for comprehensive, multiscale approaches have become evident. In the face of climate change and evolving agricultural landscapes, the conservation of native maize in South America is of growing interest, with genomics serving as an invaluable tool for identifying and preserving the genetic variability of locally adapted germplasm.