College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
Department of Regional and Urban Planning, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia.
Water Environ Res. 2024 Sep;96(9):e11129. doi: 10.1002/wer.11129.
Because of its low-lying location, urbanization, and inadequate infrastructure, Jakarta (Indonesia) has experienced an increase in annual flooding events, rising from an average of five significant floods per year in the 1990s to over 20 annually (2010-2020). With climate change exacerbating extreme weather events, Jakarta encounters escalating risks of flooding. Although the recurrent flooding is exacerbated by non-point source (NPS) of pollution such as urban runoff and agricultural discharge that contribute to 40% of total pollutants leading to flood-related issues in Jakarta, none has investigated this research gap. To reflect its novelty, this work explores the implications of climate change on the annual flooding in Jakarta by focusing on NPS and analyzes their impacts from social perspectives. This work also underscores the implications of flooding on livelihoods, health, and social cohesion in Jakarta. Focus group discussion with affected residents was used to shed light on the coping strategies employed in response to recurrent floods, ranging from community-based initiatives to reliance on informal networks. The empirical findings show that the implications of flooding extend beyond physical damages. Displacement of communities, loss of livelihoods, disruption of essential services, and increased health risks are among the social impacts experienced by local residents. Vulnerable populations, including low-income communities residing in informal settlements, bear their consequences. Economic losses from flooding amount to USD 500 million annually, impacting over 1 million residents. However, recent interventions have led to a 15% reduction in peak flood levels and a 20% reduction in flood duration in affected areas. Community resilience has also improved, with a 25% increase in flood insurance coverage and a 20% rise in community response initiatives. Overall, this study highlights that climate change exacerbates annual flooding in Jakarta, significantly impacting vulnerable communities through NPS pollution. Addressing the challenges requires integrated approaches combining effective pollution control, resilient infrastructure, and community engagement to mitigate social and long-term environmental impacts. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Climate-induced flooding disproportionately affects vulnerable communities in Jakarta. Non-point source pollution from urban runoff contributes to the severity of flooding in Jakarta. Waterborne diseases, disruption of livelihoods, and reduced access to clean water are major concerns identified in the study. The study highlights the importance of community-based adaptation strategies to mitigate the impact of flooding and pollution.
由于地理位置低、城市化和基础设施不足，印度尼西亚雅加达经历了年度洪水事件的增加，从 20 世纪 90 年代平均每年发生 5 次重大洪水增加到每年 20 次以上（2010-2020 年）。随着气候变化加剧极端天气事件，雅加达遭遇洪水风险不断升级。尽管非点源（NPS）污染，如城市径流和农业排放，加剧了洪水问题，导致雅加达 40%的总污染物，但目前还没有研究这一研究空白。为了反映其新颖性，这项工作通过关注 NPS 来探讨气候变化对雅加达年度洪水的影响，并从社会角度分析其影响。这项工作还强调了洪水对雅加达生计、健康和社会凝聚力的影响。使用受影响居民的焦点小组讨论来阐明应对反复发生的洪水所采用的应对策略，从基于社区的举措到依赖非正式网络。实证研究结果表明，洪水的影响超出了物理破坏。社区流离失所、生计丧失、基本服务中断以及健康风险增加是当地居民所经历的社会影响之一。弱势群体，包括居住在非正规住区的低收入社区，承担着后果。洪水造成的经济损失每年达 5 亿美元，影响了 100 多万居民。然而，最近的干预措施已将受影响地区的峰值洪水水位降低了 15%，洪水持续时间减少了 20%。社区的弹性也有所提高，洪水保险覆盖率提高了 25%，社区应对举措增加了 20%。总的来说，这项研究强调了气候变化加剧了雅加达的年度洪水，通过 NPS 污染对弱势社区产生了重大影响。应对这些挑战需要采取综合方法，结合有效的污染控制、有弹性的基础设施和社区参与，以减轻社会和长期环境影响。
