Recent advances in gold nanostructure-based biosensors in detecting diabetes biomarkers.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a prevalent disorder with an urgent need for continuous, precise, and on-site biomarker monitoring devices. The continuous monitoring of DM biomarkers from different biological matrices will become routine in the future, thanks to the promising biosensor design. Lately, employing different nanomaterials in biosensor receptor parts has had a great impact on smart DM monitoring. Among them, gold nanostructures (AuNSs) have arisen as highly potential materials in fabricating precise DM biosensors due to their unique properties. The present study provides an update on the applications of AuNSs in biosensors for detecting glucose as well as other DM biomarkers, such as glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), glycated albumin (GA), insulin, insulin antibodies, uric acid, lactate, and glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GADA), with a focus on the most important factors in biosensor performance such as sensitivity, selectivity, response time, and stability. Specified values of limit of detection (LOD), linear concentrations, reproducibility%, recovery%, and assay time were used to compare studies. In conclusion, AuNSs, owing to the wide electrochemical potential window and low electrical resistivity, are valuable tools in biosensor design, alongside other biological reagents and/or nanomaterials.