Evolution of copper resistance in pv. population.

The widespread use of antimicrobials that target bacterial pathogens has driven evolution of resistance, compromising the efficacy of these bactericides. Understanding the emergence and spread of resistance genes via mobile genetic elements is crucial for combating antimicrobial resistance. Copper resistance (CuR) in pv. has severely affected the efficacy of copper-based bactericides for controlling bacterial leaf spot disease of tomato and pepper. Here, we investigated the evolutionary pathways of CuR acquisition and dissemination in pv. using an extensive collection of strains. We determined that chromosomally encoded CuR predominates over plasmid-borne CuR in multiple distinct phylogenetic groups of pv. . Our analysis revealed a single site of chromosomal integration by a CuR genomic island, although the genomic island showed sequence variation among phylogenetic groups. While chromosomal CuR was more prevalent, strains with plasmid-borne resistance conferred greater copper tolerance. Additionally, we identified strains carrying two copies of CuR genes, on plasmid and chromosome, that exhibited increased copper tolerance. Strains of pv. from the USA shared identical CuR gene sequences whether on plasmids or chromosome while different alleles were found in strains from other countries. In contrast to pv. , plasmid-borne CuR predominated in closely related pathovar, pv. . Overall, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the evolution and persistence of CuR in pv. and its closest relatives.IMPORTANCEThe emergence of antimicrobial resistance is a significant threat to agricultural production as it reduces the efficacy of various antimicrobials including copper-based bactericides that are widely used to control plant diseases. The challenge of increasing antimicrobial resistance entering a production system necessitates a deeper understanding of the dynamics and mechanisms by which pathogens acquire resistance. As a result of this research, we have identified different mechanisms of copper resistance acquisition as well as levels of copper resistance in a devastating plant pathogen, pv. . The evolution and dissemination of copper resistance in strains through plasmid or chromosomally integrated genomic island or both presents barriers to current management approaches, where growers rely heavily on copper-based bactericides to manage disease outbreaks. This knowledge is crucial when considering the continued use of existing antimicrobials or adopting alternative antimicrobials in efforts to implement enhanced antimicrobial stewardship strategies in agriculture.