From the microspheres to scaffolds: advances in polymer microsphere scaffolds for bone regeneration applications.

The treatment and repair of bone tissue damage and loss due to infection, tumours, and trauma are major challenges in clinical practice. Artificial bone scaffolds offer a safer, simpler, and more feasible alternative to bone transplantation, serving to fill bone defects and promote bone tissue regeneration. Ideally, these scaffolds should possess osteoconductive, osteoinductive, and osseointegrative properties. However, the current first-generation implants, represented by titanium alloys, have shown poor bone-implant integration performance and cannot meet the requirements for bone tissue repair. This has led to increased research on second and third generation artificial bone scaffolds, which focus on loading bioactive molecules and cells. Polymer microspheres, known for their high specific surface areas at the micro- and nanoscale, exhibit excellent cell and drug delivery behaviours. Additionally, with their unique rigid structure, microsphere scaffolds can be constructed using methods such as thermal sintering, injection, and microsphere encapsulation. These scaffolds not only ensure the excellent cell drug loading performance of microspheres but also exhibit spatial modulation behaviour, aiding in bone repair within a three-dimensional network structure. This article provides a summary and discussion of the use of polymer microsphere scaffolds for bone repair, focusing on the mechanisms of bone tissue repair and the current status of clinical bone grafts, aimed at advancing research in bone repair.