Closed genomes of commercial inoculant rhizobia provide a blueprint for management of legume inoculation.

UNLABELLED

Rhizobia are soil bacteria capable of establishing symbiosis within legume root nodules, where they reduce atmospheric N into ammonia and supply it to the plant for growth. Australian soils often lack rhizobia compatible with introduced agricultural legumes, so inoculation with exotic strains has become a common practice for over 50 years. While extensive research has assessed the N-fixing capabilities of these inoculants, their genomics, taxonomy, and core and accessory gene phylogeny are poorly characterized. Furthermore, in some cases, inoculant strains have been developed from isolations made in Australia. It is unknown whether these strains represent naturalized exotic organisms, native rhizobia with a capacity to nodulate introduced legumes, or recombinant strains arising from horizontal transfer between introduced and native bacteria. Here, we describe the complete, closed genome sequences of 42 Australian commercial rhizobia. These strains span the genera, , , , , and , and only 23 strains were identified to species level. Within inoculant strain genomes, replicon structure and location of symbiosis genes were consistent with those of model strains for each genus, except for sp. SRDI969, where the symbiosis genes are chromosomally encoded. Genomic analysis of the strains isolated from Australia showed they were related to exotic strains, suggesting that they may have colonized Australian soils following undocumented introductions. These genome sequences provide the basis for accurate strain identification to manage inoculation and identify the prevalence and impact of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) on legume productivity.

IMPORTANCE

Inoculation of cultivated legumes with exotic rhizobia is integral to Australian agriculture in soils lacking compatible rhizobia. The Australian inoculant program supplies phenotypically characterized high-performing strains for farmers but in most cases, little is known about the genomes of these rhizobia. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of symbiosis genes from inoculant strains to native non-symbiotic rhizobia frequently occurs in Australian soils and can impact the long-term stability and efficacy of legume inoculation. Here, we present the analysis of reference-quality genomes for 42 Australian commercial rhizobial inoculants. We verify and classify the genetics, genome architecture, and taxonomy of these organisms. Importantly, these genome sequences will facilitate the accurate strain identification and monitoring of inoculants in soils and plant nodules, as well as enable detection of horizontal gene transfer to native rhizobia, thus ensuring the efficacy and integrity of Australia's legume inoculation program.