The facile conversion of waste biomass into few-layer graphene oxide.

Carbon-based materials are highly sought after due to their superior properties, making them valuable for high-performance applications. However, most carbon-based materials are derived from fossil sources, and their synthesis often involves hazardous chemicals. Therefore, it is essential to develop sustainable methods for synthesising these materials from renewable resources, using fewer solvents, catalytic reagents, and generating minimal waste. In this study, few-layer graphene oxide (GO) was directly synthesised from waste biomass, without the formation of an amorphous intermediate, and its use as a fire retardant in two bioplastics was evaluated. Waste birch wood biomass was converted directly into graphitic carbon using manganese nitrate as a catalyst, with varying concentrations (0.003 to 0.1 mol-metal/g-wood) and treatment durations (1 and 2 h). The catalyst was doped through vacuum soaking and mild heating (90 °C), which facilitated the formation of graphitic carbon at relatively lower temperatures (< 1000 °C), eliminating the need for producing amorphous biochar prior to graphitisation. After pyrolysis at 900 °C and 950 °C for 2 h, the sample containing 0.005 mol-metal/g-wood, treated at 950 °C, exhibited the highest degree of graphitisation. This sample was further processed in a planetary ball mill with melamine as a dispersant for 30 min. Characterisation showed a broad absorption peak at 230 nm and the presence of semi-transparent sheets (3-8 layers), indicating the presence of GO. To evaluate its performance as a fire retardant, 2 wt% of the synthesised GO was added to polyamide 11 and wheat gluten bioplastics, which were then subjected to cone calorimeter tests. The results showed a 42% and 33% reduction in the peak heat release rate for polyamide 11 and wheat gluten, respectively, compared to their neat counterparts. The flame retardancy index further indicated that GO had a more significant impact on improving the fire safety of wheat gluten compared to polyamide 11. This study highlights a sustainable method for the preparation of few-layer GO at lower temperatures than contemporary methods, making the process more energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective. Additionally, the effectiveness of few-layer GO as a fire-retardant additive for enhancing the fire safety of bioplastics has been demonstrated.