Factors that influence the caste ratio in a bacterial division of labour.

Colonies of the bacterim divide labour between cells that specialize in growth and sporulation and cells that specialize in antibiotic production. This division of labour arises owing to costly chromosome deletions in the antibiotic overproducers. However, the spatial distribution and temporal emergence of these mutations in colonies remain unknown, or whether mutation frequency-which we liken to the caste ratio in social insects-is phenotypically plastic. To elucidate changes in the proportions of specialized cells (measured as the mutation frequency), we sampled colonies grown under different conditions. Temporally, mutation frequency increased linearly with colony age and size. Spatially, mutations accumulated disproportionately in the colony centre, despite greater growth and sporulation at the periphery. Exposing colonies to sub-inhibitory concentrations of some antibiotics, a competitive cue in , increased mutation frequencies. Finally, direct competition with other that naturally produce antibiotics increased mutation frequencies, while also increasing spore production. Our findings provide insights into the intrinsic and environmental factors driving division of labour in colonies by showing that mutation frequencies are dynamic and responsive to the competitive environment. These results show that chromosome deletions are phenotypically plastic and suggest that can flexibly adjust their caste ratio.This article is part of the theme issue 'Division of labour as key driver of social evolution'.