Foundations and Advancements in Hemodynamic Monitoring: Part I-Elements of Hemodynamics.

Standard monitoring guidelines by the American Society of Anesthesiologists and European Society of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care have not been updated for over a decade, despite rapid advancements in monitoring technology and the growing complexity of surgical patients. Traditional parameters such as blood pressure and pulse oximetry often fail to detect critical intraoperative conditions, emphasizing the need for comprehensive hemodynamic assessment. This review, the first of a two-part series, explores the fundamental elements of hemodynamics, including cardiac output, stroke volume, blood pressure, and oxygen delivery, with a focus on their physiological basis, clinical significance, and perioperative applications. This article provides a detailed foundation for understanding hemodynamic monitoring, setting the stage for the second article, which addresses advanced monitoring tools and their applications in contemporary anaesthesia practice.