Muscle injury in orthopaedic trauma.

Muscle injury in the setting of orthopaedic trauma is common. Skeletal muscle injury can cause immune dysregulation and impair fracture healing both in patients and in various preclinical models. Muscle injury can also be associated with impaired vascularity and eliminate the muscle paracrine effect, both of which can impair fracture healing. Severe muscle injury can lead to volumetric muscle loss. While there are currently no effective treatments for volumetric muscle loss, minced muscle autograft has been shown to improve fracture healing, but not improve muscle function. Acute compartment syndrome can severely impact functional recovery and limit fracture healing. However, current animal models of compartment syndrome lack appropriate translation to the clinical injury.