Ethical climate in higher education: The interplay of leadership, moral efficacy, and team cohesion in diverse cultural contexts.

Ethical climate, ethical leadership, team cohesion, and collective moral efficacy influence organizational integrity and performance within higher education institutions. How do these factors interact within various cultural and institutional contexts, and what mechanisms reveal their relationships? This research investigates the relationship between ethical climate, ethical leadership, collective moral efficacy, and team cohesion within Pakistan, China, and Saudi Arabia higher education institutions. The research is based on Social Cognitive Theory and utilizes a quantitative survey method, obtaining data from 15 universities chosen for their varied cultural, economic, and institutional contexts. The results indicate that ethical climate substantially improves ethical leadership, with collective moral efficacy as a mediator and team cohesion as a moderator. The strength of these relationships differs among countries: China's collectivist culture and strong institutional frameworks enhance these associations, whereas Pakistan's resource limitations and systemic challenges diminish them. Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 reforms indicate advancement; however, they encounter challenges in implementation. This study addresses significant gaps in the literature by introducing collective moral efficacy and team cohesion as mediating and moderating variables, extending Social Cognitive Theory, and offering a cross-cultural perspective on ethical leadership. The findings highlight the significance of promoting ethical climates, enhancing team cohesion, and tackling systemic challenges to improve leadership effectiveness and organizational outcomes. This investigation provides strategies for higher education institutions to enhance ethical practices and resilience across varied cultural and economic contexts. Ultimately, this study raises a pivotal question: How can higher education institutions worldwide leverage ethical climate and leadership to foster sustainable organizational practices and achieve institutional excellence in an increasingly complex global landscape?