Gonzalez-Villalva Adriana, Marcela Rojas-Lemus, Nelly López-Valdez, Patricia Bizarro-Nevares, Guadalupe Morales-Ricardes, Brenda Casarrubias-Tabarez, Maria Eugenia Cervantes-Valencia, Martha Ustarroz-Cano, Isabel García-Peláez, Fortoul T I
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM). Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Biología Celular y Tisular, Mexico.
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM). Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Biología Celular y Tisular, Mexico; Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico.
Toxicology. 2025 Aug;515:154163. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2025.154163. Epub 2025 Apr 24.
Lead (Pb) has been used by humans since prehistoric times to make tools due to its malleability and durability. The Roman Empire, the Industrial Revolution, and the introduction of Pb in gasoline during the 1920s contributed to increased environmental concentrations. Pb toxicity led to its removal from gasoline after several decades. However, Pb continues to be emitted from various anthropogenic sources, including but not limited to batteries, mining, foundries, smelting, e-waste recycling, and painting. Pb remains an environmental concern, as no established safe concentration for human health has been identified. Children are more susceptible to the absorption and poisoning of Pb. Occupational exposure to Pb poses a significant risk to workers and individuals living near lead industries. The primary routes of exposure are inhalation and ingestion, and bioaccumulation and biomagnification through the food chain are major sources of human exposure. This review aims to provide an overview of Pb and its systemic toxicity of Pb, including its effects on the lungs, blood, liver, kidneys, and nervous, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems. Since Pb is classified as a probable carcinogen for humans, the article also addresses genotoxicity and cancer risk. Furthermore, it reviews the most researched mechanisms of toxicity, including calcium mimicry, oxidative stress, and inflammation, along with other less-studied mechanisms. Nevertheless, the authors emphasize the importance of exploring less examined cells, tissues, and mechanisms to deepen the understanding of Pb toxicity at various concentrations, particularly in cases of chronic low-level Pb exposure, to develop better prevention and treatment strategies for lead poisoning.
自史前时代以来，人类就因其延展性和耐用性而使用铅（Pb）来制造工具。罗马帝国、工业革命以及20世纪20年代汽油中引入铅，导致环境中铅的浓度增加。几十年后，铅的毒性导致其被从汽油中去除。然而，铅仍继续从各种人为来源排放，包括但不限于电池、采矿、铸造厂、冶炼、电子废物回收和油漆。铅仍然是一个环境问题，因为尚未确定对人类健康安全的浓度。儿童更容易吸收铅并中毒。职业性接触铅对工人和生活在铅工业附近的个人构成重大风险。主要接触途径是吸入和摄入，通过食物链的生物累积和生物放大是人类接触铅的主要来源。本综述旨在概述铅及其全身毒性，包括其对肺、血液、肝脏、肾脏以及神经、心血管和生殖系统的影响。由于铅被归类为对人类可能的致癌物，本文还讨论了遗传毒性和癌症风险。此外，它回顾了研究最多的毒性机制，包括钙模拟、氧化应激和炎症，以及其他研究较少的机制。尽管如此，作者强调探索研究较少的细胞、组织和机制对于加深对不同浓度铅毒性的理解的重要性，特别是在慢性低水平铅暴露的情况下，以便制定更好的铅中毒预防和治疗策略。
