Including the urbanization gradient in people-centered wildlife conservation in Amazonia.

Conservation policy in the Amazon traditionally focuses on rural areas, overlooking the socioecological roles of urban populations. This oversight can hinder sustainability by neglecting rural-urban connections. We compared the prevalence and quantity of wild meat consumed, bartered, and traded commercially in rural, peri-urban, and urban areas of the Brazilian Amazon to inform policies aimed at including local people in conservation. We also examined social factors influencing wildlife access. These factors included household management (single vs. dual adult households), household dependency (ratio of minors to working adults), residence status (single-sited vs. multisited households), frequency of rural area visits by urban residents, and market access by peri-urban and rural residents. We surveyed 782 households in Manaus and Carauari (Manaus: 299 urban, 90 peri-urban, 120 rural; Carauari: 159 urban, 41 peri-urban, 73 rural) about social factors related to wildlife used that are linked to urbanization. Results revealed widespread wildlife use across urbanization categories. The percentage of urban households that consumed (Manaus 22%, Carauari 57%), bartered (Manaus 17%, Carauari 30%), and traded (Manaus 21%, Carauari 7%) wildlife was substantial. Market access was higher in Manaus than in Carauari. Commercial trade in chelonians and barter of mammals and birds increased as access to markets increased. Commercial wildlife trade was present in urban households (Carauari 21% [95% CI 7-34], Manaus 16% [95% CI 6-26]) but higher in peri-urban Manaus (chelonian trade 44% [95% CI 22-62]). Given these high prevalence levels, especially near expanding urban areas, such as Manaus, wildlife barter and commercial trade likely contribute to unsustainable harvesting pressures, affecting people's sovereignty. Our research underscores the need for inclusive policies that regulate subsistence hunting to uphold rural rights; integration of fish and wildlife management in community-based conservation frameworks to enhance food security and reduce wildlife dependence; and inclusion of wildlife users in integrated development programs through community-based conservation to curtail wildlife trade, ultimately creating sustainable and just pathways for the urbanizing Amazonia.