Occurrence of quinolizidine alkaloids and phomopsin A in lupin-containing foods: a two-year survey of the Belgian market.

Lupin is a pulse crop valued for its protein content and potential as functional ingredient, e.g. in gluten-free foods. The presence of quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) and phomopsins (PHO) has raised concerns, yet information regarding their occurrence remains limited. A two-year screening of QAs and PHO A in lupin-containing foods available on the Belgian market was conducted, based on a market study and risk-based sampling plan ( = 339). A UHPLC-MS/MS method was validated for the simultaneous quantification of seven QAs (i.e. sparteine, lupanine, lupinine, 13α-OH-lupanine, angustifoline, multiflorine and albine) and phomopsin A in relevant matrices. PHO A was not detected in any of the samples (<LOD of 1.5-3.6 µg/kg). In contrast, high total QA levels (sum of seven QAs) were measured in 'Lupins (dry) and similar' (446 ± 343 mg/kg,  = 17), 'Lupin-based protein powder' (234 ± 135 mg/kg,  = 6), 'Lupin-based egg alternatives' (177 ± 195 mg/kg,  = 17) and 'Lupin-based coffee surrogates' (428 ± 368 mg/kg,  = 6). Given lupin's potential in plant-based diets, attention to QA presence is crucial, and a safe-by-design approach is recommended. A risk assessment, that considers the consumption of lupins, should indicate whether risk management measures are warranted.