The Effectiveness of Nudging and Its Ethical Implications.

Nudging consists of interventions that aim to alter behavior in a certain way by changing the presentation or framing of options, without coercion or changing economic incentives. This paper discusses the effectiveness of nudging and the ethical implications of this effectiveness. Section 2 suggests that-if publication bias is adequately accounted for-recent comprehensive meta-analyses as well as high-quality experiments show that nudging is much less effective than previously assumed. Sections 3 and 4 discuss the ethical implications. I argue that the lack of effectiveness of nudging is an additional moral consideration against it. There are two reasons: First, reduced effectiveness makes nudging less cost-effective. Second, reduced effectiveness reduces the benefits of nudging but does not, to the same degree, weaken the moral reasons speaking against nudging. However, a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of various forms of nudging in diverse contexts, as well as their ethical permissibility, requires further empirical and ethical research.